Rabu, 10 Oktober 2012

Reading Comprehension


NAME     : ZUBADAR                                                      CYCLE :  1        
NO. STB : A 1210817                                                              TIME    :
DATE      :                                                                     SCORE :

1. Einstein's primary work was in the area of
a. chemistry.
b. biology.
c. physics.
d. engineering.

2. Which of the following inventions is mentioned in the passage as a practical application of Einstein's discoveries?
a. Radio
b. Automobiles
c. Computers
d. Television

3. According to the passage, Einstein supported all of the following except
a. the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
b. nationalism.
c. atomic bomb research in the United States.
d. the defeat of the Nazis.

4. In which country was Einstein born?
a. Switzerland
b. United States
c. Germany
d. Israel

5. What is "Brownian movement"?
a. The zig-zag motion of microscopic particles in suspension
b. The emission of electrons from solids when struck by light
c. The motion of photons in light
d. The basis of the theory of relativity

6. Einstein was a citizen of all of the following countries EXCEPT
a. Belgium.
b. Germany.
c. United States.
d. Switzerland.




7. It is clear from the tone of the passage that the author feels
a. Einstein's work in physics was somewhat tarnished by his conservative political views.
b. Albert Einstein was one of the most brilliant thinkers in history.
c. Einstein's work in physics, though theoretically impressive, led to few practical applications.
d. Einstein's theories have been consistently proven incorrect.


8. According to Einstein's special theory of relativity,
a. all properties of matter and energy can be explained in a single mathematical formula.
b. light is composed of separate packets of energy.
c. time and motion are relative to the observer.
d. some solids emit electrons when struck by light.

9. In line 18, the word "exalting" most nearly means
a. elevation.
b. criticism.
c. support.
d. elimination.

10. According to Einstein, light is composed of separate packets of energy called
a. electrons.
b. photoelectrons.
c. quanta.
d. gamma rays.


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English and Indonesia are Wonderful: Curriculum Development: 1.)     Curriculum History in Indonesia Curriculum development in language teaching was began in 1960 s , though issues of syllabus ...

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English and Indonesia are Wonderful: Contoh Surat Lamaran:     SURAT   LAMARAN   UNTUK   TENAGA   HONORER               Palu,          Agustus, 2012      Kepada      Yth. Deka...

Contoh Surat Lamaran


   SURAT  LAMARAN  UNTUK  TENAGA  HONORER




              Palu,         Agustus, 2012


     Kepada
     Yth. Dekan FKIP Universitas Tadulako
    di –                                              
                      Palu

Perihal: Lamaran Pekerjaan

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini :

Nama                                                   : Zubadar
Tempat / tanggal lahir                          : Langaleso, 17 Februari 1992
Jenis Kelamin                                       : Laki-laki
Agama                                                  : Islam
Tugas/Pekerjaan                                  : Tenaga Pengajar
Pendidikan / Jurusan                           : Pend. Bahasa Inggris / Bahasa dan Seni
Alamat sekarang                                  : Desa Langaleso. Kec. Dolo
No. Telp / HP                                      : 082349418278

Dengan ini mengajukan permohonan kepada Bapak, agar dapat kiranya diterima sebagai Calon Dosen FKIP Jurusan Bahasa dan Seni, Program Studi Bahasa Inggris.
Sebagai bahan pertimbangan Bapak, bersama ini saya lampirkan bahan-bahan kelengkapan sebagai berikut:

a. Foto copy Ijazah Terakhir / Transkrip Akademik yang sudah dilegalisir oleh pejabat   yang  berwenang.
b.  Foto copy Piagam Penghargaan sebagai lulusan termuda. 
Demikian permohonan ini saya sampaikan kepada Bapak dan atas perhatiannya diucapkan terima kasih.



Pelamar,



        ( Zubadar S.Pd )



THE ROLE OF TEACHING AND CURRICULUM IN EFL LEARNING


The teacher is an important person in the classroom. The teachers should be able to create classroom climate which show a mutually accepting relationship among their students and between the teachers and their students. He/she has a great influence over the students, in terms of motivation, confidence, attitudes to learning, beliefs about learning, and social morals. Here are some differing views on the role of the teacher:

        The teacher is a transmitter of knowledge.
        The teacher is a controller of learning.
        The teacher is a manager of class discipline.
        The teacher is a facilitator of learning.
        The teacher is a language resource.
        The teacher is a mentor of learning.
        The teacher is a counsellor of living and learning.

There are some characteristics of teachers plays in a student centered learning environment, future studies that gauge characteristics of a teacher and a student in an effective student-centered learning environment is very much needed.

First, teachers should adapt their instruction as accordingly to the developmental levels of the students. Teachers were suggested to monitor students’ learning cautiously as each student receives, analyze, assess and reflect information at various levels. For instance, the Bloom’s Taxonomy provides for an excellent alternative to manage and monitor students’ learning. Teachers are encouraged to construct learning objectives based on the six levels of knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Second, teachers should pay attention to individual differences in learning. This is especially true when each student is unique and he or she comprehends information at different step.

Third, teachers must constantly assess their students as an integral dimension of the teaching and learning process. For instance, teachers must analyze the students’ perception of their expected learning outcome and compare it to the learning objectives outlined in the course structure.

The role of the teacher is to promote positive attitudes to learning, positive motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety. In other words, the language classroom must be a non-threatening learning environment, and the teacher as the facilitator of learning; a social and academic counsellor. A student-centred environment gives students responsibility for learning. The teacher tries to make students aware of the learning process, so that they can find out what they want to learn and how they want to learn it.

A teacher plays an important role in providing and engaging teaching and learning environment. A teacher shoulders in shifting students from a passive role to an active role in a teaching and learning process. teachers are encouraged to guide students to critically reflect on knowledge they acquire and to encourage teamwork among students.

References;

Nunan, D. (1988). Syllabus Design. Hongkong: Oxford University Press.

Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching.
New York: Cambridge University Press.

The Shift in the Role of Teachers in the Learning Process. Adapted from Http://www.eurojournals.com/ejss_7_2_03.pdf. Retrieved on 7 October 2012 .


Curriculum Development



1.)    Curriculum History in Indonesia

Curriculum development in language teaching was began in 1960s, though issues of syllabus design emerged as a major factor in language teaching much earlier. It starts with the syllabus design which involved by one aspect of curriculum but it is not similar with it. Furthermore, In the history of Indonesia's education, national education curriculum has experienced many changes, namely in the years 1947, 1952, 1964, 1968, 1975, 1984, 1994, 2004 and the latest is 2006. Our curriculum designed based on the Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution.

2.)         The distinction and superiority among of those curricula
A.)   Curriculum 1968 and before
The first curriculum has a name Subject Plan 1947 (Rencana Pelajaran 1947). At that time, Our education system still influenced by Netherlands and Japan. So, our goverment designed our first curricuum to replace the Netherlands education system and emphasize on the Indonesian people character. Curriculum 1968 has a goal to form a human Pancasila sincere, strong, healthy physical, moral character, and religious.
B.)  Curriculum 1975
The curriculum 1975 was made by improving the curriculum 1968 in order to integrate all of approaches to achieve specific goals and to measure students’ behaviour. In addition, The teacher should apply the principles according to Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. For example; if we want to learn about English, we also learn the culture, gestures, and oral statement.
C.)  Curriculum 1984
In 1983, the curriculum 1975 is considered no suitable with the needs of  science and technology development. Therefore,  the curriculum 1984 was designed for orienting the instructional goals and learning in the classroom must be functional and effective. So, this curriculum should use communicative approach and ask the teachers who teach English follow a training.


D.)    Curriculum 1994

The 1994 English curriculum emphasize on communicative skill by using implementation of meaning-based approach. The teaching program for semester must involve the objectives of four language skills and statements about language use. But, the implementation of curriculum 1994 got some problems, because there are so many approach should be oriented and the number of subjects and substance of each of the subjects is too much.
E.)     Competency-Based Curriculum - Version 2002 and 2004
Competency-based curriculum focuses on developing the ability to be competence and have great performance standards. This curriculum emphasis on student competency both individual and group, and use various of approach and methosds.

3.)    The Analyzing of curriculum development in EFL teaching in Indonesia.

Curriculum shows the relation between academic expectation and program of studies. The curriculum was made by policy-maker and the teacher just adopt them. As we know that curriculum has been changed for many times, because the change of learner’s need, project and differential backround of education ministry. Especially in Indonesia, Indonesia is a big country and there are some remote areas that have not got same educational distribution, but the remote areas should fulfill standard competence in the curriculum.
The educational system based on curriculum has benefit to the students or learnes, for example; the instructions in curiculum focus on program of studies, engage student’s experience for learning, and enable them to drill their ability, and the teacher can help them by using some theories or methods in English Foreign Language Teaching such as; Grammar translation method, direct method, Audio Lingual Method, etc. Moreover this curriculum centers on what is most significant for students to know and be capable of doing and to aid them in his or her lives and with career planning.
In opposition, This curriculum also has weakness, for instance; the content of curriculum based on national standard, it is not to emphasize on students’ standard capability, because the policy maker make the standardization only based on approach.
                  Briefly, Educational leaders need to be effective and efficient concerning curriculum in an educational setting, and the ideal curriculum must provide for individual differences so that each student may adequately achieve. So, the curriculum must presents standards focus on instruction and what the learner’s need in every single district area, in order for students’ achievement will improve and equalize for all students in Indonesia
































         References;

Diamond, R. M. (1997). Designing and assessing courses and curricula. A practical guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Nunan, D. (1984). The Learner-centered curriculum. New York:
Cambridge University Press.

Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
















Zubadar
K 102 12 045



Selasa, 09 Oktober 2012

Cultural Understanding


Problems of Teaching Culture
There are certain problems in attempting to teach a culture, whether one’s own or that of another group.
1.      Students who have experienced a uniform culture often suffer from culture shock when confronted with different ways of thingking, acting, and reacting. It is important to convoy cultural concepts dispassionately and objectively, so that students do not feel that he teacher considers everything in the new culture to be “better” or ‘worse” than in the students native culture.
2.      In attemp syting to fit complicated cultural systems into  a simplified framework which is compreheeotypensible to an early level student, we run the danger of imparting or reinforcing stereotypes of attitudes and behavior.
Goals for The Teaching of Culture
1.      That they understand that people actthe way they do because they are using options the societyallows for satisfying  basic physical and psychological needs.
2.      That they understand that such social variables as age, sex, social class, and place of residence affect the way people speak and behave.
3.      That they can demonstrate how people conventionally act in the most commont mundane and crisis situations in the target culture;
4.      That they are aware that culturally conditioned images are associated with even the most common target words and phrases;
5.      That they are able to evaluate the relative strength of a generality concerning the target culture in terms of the amount of evidence substantiating the statement.
  Culture in The Class Room
Describing and explaining the culture                                   
Teachers have talked at great length about the geoghraphical environment, the hystory of the people their literally artistic and scientific achievment, the institution of their society and even about small, details of their everyday life.
             Experiencing the culture through language use
            Teaching for cultural understanding is fully integrated with the proses of assimilation of syintax and vocabulary. Since language is so closely interwoven with every aspect of culture, this approach is possible, but only when teachers are well informed and alert to cultural differences.


Dialogues, skits, and minidramas
            One of the commonest devices used in the early stages og language learning is the dialogue. Each dialogue should be constructive around and experience compatible with the age and interests of the students, one which will clearly demonstrate behavior culturally appropriate for speaker of that particular language.
Native Speakers in The Class Room
            From time to time native speakers should be invited into the classroom. They should be encourage to prepare questions in order to esblsh a picture of who their visitors is, what he or she does, and other interesting facts about the visitor’s life and works.
  10 simple ways to improve cross culture understanding in a new country
1.      Adapt to the local language: Don’t isolate yourself from the local language and the local way of speaking – the slang, the style, …. the whole nine yards.
2.      Participate in the community functions: Be a part of the local community. The social interactions help with understanding the local culture and appreciating the differences.
3.      Volunteer at a local school or library: Being a volunteer at local school or library is not only a noble thing to do, but it help you equally.
4.      Share your own culture and customs: To improve cross-cultural understanding, share the knowledge of your own culture with the local communities and with local circle of friends.
  Types of courses for teaching culture
These may be of several kinds.
1.      A sequenced presentation of all aspects of the culture.
2.      A constractive study of the target culture and the culture of the language learners.
3.      Interdisciplinary courses in which students study the history, sociology, fine arts, or philosophy of the country or countries where the language is spoken.
4.      A conversationally oriented course in which students learn much about the country and the culture so that they may interact orally in a more effective and sympathetic way with speakers of the language.
5.       Contemporary culture studied through literary texts.
6.      A course similar to number 5 will use film as the medium for study of the culture.


Second Language Acquisition


INTRODUCTION

1.1   Defenition of Language acquisition
Language acquisition is very similar to the process of children use in acquiring first and second languages. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language natural communication--in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding. Language acquisition is important for our understanding of man in general and of the intellectual development of the child in particular, it addressed major quiestions about the nature of man, question that have generated a great deal of lively and often acrimonious debate over the centuries amongst philosophers and psychologist.

Psycholinguistics  has an important social role to play in demonstrating that all of links in this argument are faulty. The pedagogical emphasis on the role of language as a tool of cognitive development is. In fact, linguistic communication plays a very specialized role in cognitive development perhaps both fasilitating and retarding various aspect of the process. Linguistics provides the child-language researcher with carefully defined concepts and units of analysis for the investigation of language, as well as formal descriptions of the adults knowledge of language, the end point of the child’s development.
Some changes in the child’s speech and understanding reflect the growth of linguistic knowledge, others reflect the development of memory capacity, attention span, or reasoning ability.




CONTENT
2.1 From sound to meaning
            Phonetics is concerned with how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived (we will only look at the production of sounds). Phonology is concerned with how sounds function in relation to each other in a language. In other words, phonetics is about sounds of language, phonology about sound systems of language. Phonetics is a descriptive tool necessary to the study of the phonological aspects of a language.
              For a start, the child must differenciate between speech sounds and other sounds in his environment, especially between speech and the other noises produced by the people around him. The child must know how to produce and discriminate those particular sounds used as speech elements in his language. Phonetics provides us with a description of how speech sound in any language are produced by the various organs of the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics) and a description of the sound waves themselves (acoustic phonetics).
            English has two major classes of speech sound, consonants and vowels.
a). Consonant
            On the way out the air flow can be more or less obstructed, producing a consonant, or is simply modified, giving a vowel. If you pronounce the first sound of the word paper you close your mouth completely and that is the most obstruction, whereas if you pronounce the first sound of the word after the mouth is more open than normal, the air flows as freely as it possibly can.
The consonants of English are produced by impeding or cutting off a stream of air expelled from the lungs as it passes through the throat and mouth, sometimes diverting it through the nose. The phonetic classification of consonant sounds specifies three variables: (1) their manner of articulation, (2) their place of articulation, and (3) whether or not they are accompanied by vibration of the vocal cords.

http://fajardo-acosta.com/worldlit/language/images/consonants.jpg 









b). Vowel
            Vowel are produced by the air expelled from the lungs flowing through the vocal cords and then passing freely through the mouth and sometimes through the nose. If the vocal cords are stretched with the righ tension, they vibrate as the air passes through them, causing sound waves. These sound waves are modified, primarily by the height and location of the tongue in the mouth and by the shape of the lips, to form the different vowels. For example, the vowel sound in Pete is produced with the tongue raised near the front of the mouth, so it is called a high front vowel. The vowel in pool is produced with the tongue raised near the back of the mouth, so, it is called high back vowel. Vowels differ in lenght, in pitch, and in the tenseness of the articulators during their production. A full phonetic transcription provides symbols that indicate the value of each attribute in pronounciation of the vowel.
            We perceive words as made up of separate speech sounds, although the acoustic pattern is continuous. There is in fact no time slice of the stream of speech that can be heard as one of the stop consonants alone.

2.2 Phonemes-the functional sounds of a language
            The production and discrimination of the speech sounds of a language is a complicated business, but just being able to produce and discern all the sound is not enough. All languages group particular variations of sound into speech units, or phonemes. Phonemes are those categories of sount that function to signal differences in the words in the language. They are best defined in terms of contrasting minimal pairs of words that differ by only one sound but have different meanings. The words pin, bin, gin, din, shin, kin, chin, thin, fin, win, and tin differ only in their initial sound, In English the following consonants are voiced: b, d, g, v, ᶞ, z, Æ·, l, r, j, w, ʤ, m, n, Å‹, and the following ones are unvoiced: p, t, k, f, ÆŸ, s, ʃ, h, ʧ

4.1  Later Grammer
4.1.1  Phrase structure
            Whereas the two – years – old child uses very simple sentences consesting of single nouns and verbs, the sligly older child expands theses constituents.The single noun phrases serving  the same gramatical roles but expressing much richer meaning s.The two-year-old may talkof dog,but three-or four-year-old will have expended this to that big dog or Mrs.Brown,s dog or the dog with thewiggly tail.
4.1.2   Noun Phrases
The simple sentences children produce canbe deveded into two types : thosewith amain verb between two nouns and those with capula between two nouns ,for example :
    The dog ate candy.
Versus
       The puppy is a pest.
So the noun phrases children use can serve four distinct roles: as subject or object of the first type of sentence,and as subject or predicate nominative of the second type .
The noun phrases playing these four roles  were at first quite distinct. The subject of capula sentences was often the pronoun it or that ,as in :
     That a car.
But the object of copular sentences was never a pronoun. The subject of sentences  with main verbs was almost always an animate noun, the object  inanimate noun , as in :
   Man drives truck.
4.1.3   Verb  Phrases
Among the earliest verb expansions learned by child are  the inflections for the third person ,simple past tense, and  progressive endings .The first true auxiliaries to appear are the negative ones,don’t,can’t ,and won’t (a fact that won’t  surprise any parents), but they seem to be mere variations of the word not .For  instace , the positive forms do ,can ,and will only appear  later , and the child at the early stage produces  no varians like doesn’t or  didn’t .The full auxiliary system of  engglish  blossoms forth  shortly after  this period ,around age fuor  ( or MLU 3.5 ).There  are some  aspectsof verb  modulation that  the child takes  considerably  more time to master ,in particular the hypothetical  markings ,such as would  and the frefective  forms with have. As mentioned earlier,these seem  to await  the child’s conceptual  development rather  than his grammar .
             Children  make  surprisingly  few errors  with verb phrases: for  example ,they  rarely produce inperative  sentences  with  auxiliaries  or in flections  that out of place .

             Some  wh –questions  allow  a verb  phrases  in reply ,and discourse provides  evidence  that the  child can isolate that constituent  appropriately:
      What are your doing?                  Playing fiddle.
      What must   I do?                         Read.
            These responses  are perfectly  acceptable in  discourse even  though  they are not whole  sentences; they are known as elipses .
4.1.4   Adverbial  Phrases
 The eraliest  type of adverbial  constituent to appear in child speech seems to express location,usually  in simple prepositional  phrases like on top or  in here. Like noun and verb phrases ,adfverbial  can be elaborated  indefinitely to  specify  more exactly ;
     On top of the tallest chest of drawers in the back bedroom .aof specificity  of  reference required.)Very late developments  include the  adverbs  of time  and  manner  ,reflected  again in  the  child’s  replies  to questions. There are also subtle differences within adverbial phrases of manner . One was drawn  to our attention when we where  playing with a two – and a half – year- old girl who had made  a “ meal “ from play do .The dialogue when  as follows :
Terry (2 ½): Look, a meal.
Jill: Oh, but what are you going to eat it with?
Terry: with my bib on.
On another occasion, a child had made play do spaghetti that cried out  for  play do meatballs, so we asked him :
Jill: Oh but what are you going to eat with it?
Alec: A fork.
Routines
Linguists have two other  other souces of information abaut the  constituent structure of adult sentences. First, they can ask adults to judge “belongingness” of certain groups of words, to discover the natural  breaks  in sentences . for example, which is amore natural break :
Thounght that king Kong might appear on my balcony /terrifies me.
The thought that king kong might appear/on my balcony terrifies me.
Second, if two constituent structures are possible for a single sentence, an adult will find it ambiguous ,as in;
4.1.5   Transformations and deep structure
Linguists studying adult language have found it necessary to distinguish between the surface structure and  the deep structure of sentences.Bloom  (1970 ) has claimed that young children’s sentences also  have a deep  structure richer than their surface form. If the linguistic description is also correct as a psychological account, then the child mush be learn the transformasional rulers that relate deep and surface structure.
Adult Comprehention
Psychologists in the early 1960s enthusiastically took up the model of transformational grammar proposed by Chomsky in 1957. They reasoned as follows: If to describe fully the meaning of  a sentences it is important to take in to account its deep  structure, surely it also necessary for listener to get to the deep structure of a sentence he hears.
This was an exciting step forward towards a model of psychological processes in sentence comprehentinsion. Up until this point there had only been rather barren attempts to measure sentence complexity using variables such as length in words or the probability of certain word sequences.
Child Speech
In studying child speech , do we even  concider  the derivational theory  of complexity ? Brown argued that different assumptions are used in applying the theory to child language (Brown and Herrenstein, 1975). The proceding experiments were testing the hypothesis that transpormations correspond in some direct way to the mental operations we perform in decoding a sentence for its meaning, that is, processing speech one we have acquired language.
At that time the model of negationin transformation al grammar proposed that negatives had a separate deep structure that included  a negative  “ marker “ At sertain point in the derivation of surface form, this marker triggered certain transformational rules that inserted  a negative morpheme adjacent to the verb. Of course, true master of all features  of negation  takes much  longer , especially when  indenfinite forms are included. Children characteristically make errors on indenfinites for many years, which is not at all surprising given the complexity  of the rules for their combination. Some typical errors are:
       I’m not scared of nothing.
Why can’t we have no milk ?
He’s not doing nothing but standing still
I don’t got no brothers and sisters.
5. The Development of Word Meaning
     There are several problems to semantic development, or the acquisition of meaning. Children’s early sentences express underlying semantic relation such as agent-action-object, locative, or processor-possessed. Children also use their utterances to serve different function – to query, request, describe, deny, and so forth. These functions represent the pragmatic meanings of sentences, the roles they play and the purposes they serve in conversations.
            A third aspects of semantics concerns the meanings of the individual words in sentences. The child has to learn the words for objects, actions, or the properties of those objects and actions, as well as for the relationship between objects and their positions in space and time. This task requires far more than simply the association of a complex sound uttered by an adult with a particular object that may be present at the time.
      The words that the child learns differ in the complexity of their condition of use:
1.  At the simplest level come proper names. Here there is only one referent for each word, though the referent must be recognized through many transformations arising from changes in clothing, distance, angle of regard, and so on. Many of the child’s first words are proper names likes Daddy and Mommy or name their favorite toys.
2.  The next level is common noun. The child feels difficult to map the words onto the appropriate classes of objects, for example, dogs and chairs. The description of nouns, verbs, and adjectives greatly oversimplifies their linguistic characterization. Not all nouns refer to objects (for example, justice or sanity) nor do all verbs refer to actions or activities that can be seen or heard. More classes of word are not acquired in childhood.
3.  Still more complex are the meanings of relational words, such as the dimensional adjectives big and little, tall and short, or thick and thin. The child still assume that elephant is big even the smaller one. In order to correctly understand the meanings of these adjectives the child must not only identify the relevant properties of the objects but also perform a comparison to the standard. So the child should learn about the antonyms. So again the child’s linguistic knowledge must be mapped onto his conceptual knowledge about spatial relationships.
4.  The most complex relational words that we will consider in this chapter are certain deictic expressions. Deictic expressions draw the attention of the hearer to a particular object in the situation of the utterance, not by naming it, but by locating it in relation to the speaker. Examples of these are the demonstrative adjectives, this and that, and the location adverbs, here and there. Deictic expressions of time, like now, yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Children have difficulty in learning these terms because the implicit standard of distance that constrast this from that or here from there shifts as the context of the utterance changes.


5.1 The First Terms of Reference
A. Nouns
At first, a noun may be used by the child almost as a proper name, referring to only a single object, but he soon extends its use to other objects that are similar in some respect, usually in function or perceptual form. If an adults introduced them a noun with an article, the child did not pay attention on it. Otherwise, he will use both, flower or a flower.
1.      Overextensions
The child usually called a doggie not only to the family mutt and other dogs, but to horses, cows, sheep, and cats as well. With respect to development, the semantic feature hypothesis suggests that when a child first begins to produce identifiable words he does not know their full meaning for adults. Instead, he identifies the meaning of a word with only some subset of the features or components of meaning that adults might associate with it.
2.      Overextensions in Comprehension
If a child identifies the meaning of a word with a single defining feature, let us say doggie with [four-legged], he should not only overextend the use of that word in his own speech, but also overextend it in his comprehension of what other people say. He may call dogs, horses, cows, and cats all doggie, and also be unable to pick out the doggie from a set of animals. Children may also employ this strategy to discover the correct words for objects, since overextensions of a word frequently elicit a correction from the parent.
3.      Underextensions
The meanings of word classes sometimes get narrow-down or differentiation of the meanings of the words. The direction of semantic development ought therefore to be from word meanings that are too broad towards more and more specific meanings.
4.      Behavioral Equivalence and the Acquisition of Category Names
Vocabulary development proceeds in both direction, towards more specific and more general class names. Sometimes our mother may name coins as dimes or nickles for an adult but as money for the child. Similarly, she will name cars as Kijang, Fords, and Toyota for an adult, but as cars  for her young child. To summarize, objects are named for the child by his parents or other adults at an intermediate level of generality, usually at the level at which the objects are behaviorally equivalent for him.
B. Verb and Simple Adjectives
There has been somewhat less systematic study of the child’s acquisition of simple verbs and adjectives than of his acquisition of nouns. Most of the early verbs in child’s vocabulary seem to refer to changes in the objects that he plays with: for example, broke, fell, open; or to his own actions: jump, run, throw, and so on (Nelson, 1973). In acquiring the color words, the child first seems to learn that a certain set of words go together as colors. The child usually guesses a color even it is not true.
C. The Basis for Early Semantic Categories
Much of the child’s early semantic development consists of the acquisition of names for concepts or categories of objects and actions, these categories being formed on the basis of similarities in perceptual or functional attributes. In fact, semantic categories based on both types of feature seem to occur from the beginning in child’s vocabulary development.
5.3 Relational Words
Words that specify relationship between people, objects and events occur quite early in child language, but the meanings of most relational words are not acquired in all their complexity until the child is four or five, even older.



A.    Spatial Adjectives
Considerable research into semantic development has been focused on the set of spatial relational adjectives: big/little, tall/short, high/low, long/short, wide/narrow, fat/skinny, thick/thin, and deep/shallow.
a.       The Order of Acquisition
In children’s spontaneous descriptions of objects, big and little are the first of the spatial adjectives to appear, well before any of the other contrastive pairs (Brown, 1973). For the other pairs of spatial adjectives, the percentages of appropriate responses dropped off precipitously: to 45 percent for high/low, 12 percent for thick/thin, 7 percent for wide/narrow, and only 2 percent for deep/shallow.
1.      Positive and Negative Poles
Another characteristic of the dimensional adjectives is that they come in antonymous pairs, one referring to the most extended or positive, end of the dimension, the other to the least extended or negative, and end. For three related reasons the word for the positive pole seems to be primary and that for the negative pole secondary.
2.      Semantic Confusions
According to the semantic feature hypothesis, the feature [physical extent] is more general than and prior to [vertical] or [horizontal], since the latter two specify the dimension along which physical extent is to be measured. Similarly [vertical] and [horizontal] are logically prior to [positive/negative pole], since the polar feature specifies which end of the dimension is being referred to.
B.     Verbs of Possession
Like the spatial adjectives, the verbs give, take, pay, trade, spend, buy, and sell form a set of relational words that are linked together by common components of meaning. For their comprehension they also require reference to the relationship between the interactors in the transaction. Children master these verbs in order, from least complex to most complex.
5.4 The Process of Word Learning
A common account of word learning suggests that the child imitates the new words that his parents say to him. In a general sense this must be true, since the child does come to produce the words that he hears from adults, but immediately mimicking part or the adult’s entire sentence containing a new word does not seem to be necessary for the acquisition of words. Some children do imitate utterances containing new words before they use those words spontaneously in their own speech (Bloom et al.,1974; Lieven, cited by Ryan, 1973), but most children do not (Leonard and Kaplan, 1976).















CONCLUSION
Second language acquisition deals with the acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages. The capacity to successfully use language requires one to acquire a range of tools including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and an extensive vocabulary. Language might be vocalized as speech or manual as in sign.
Theories of second-language acquisition are various theories and hypotheses in the field of second-language acquisition about how people learn a second language. Research in second-language acquisition is closely related to several disciplines including linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, neuroscience, and education, and consequently most theories of second-language acquisition can be identified as having roots in one of them. Each of these theories can be thought of as shedding light on one part of the language learning process; however, no one overarching theory of second-language acquisition has yet been widely accepted by researchers.












REFERENCES

Stephen D Krashen. (1981). “Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning”. University of Southern California.

Vikner, S. (1986). “Phonetics and Phonology”. Geneva: University of Geneva, dept. Of English.